Atmospheric Measurement Techniques www.atmos-meas-tech.net 1867-1381 1867-8548 3 1 2010 10.5194/amt-3-141-2010 http://www.atmos-meas-tech.net/3/141/2010/ http://www.atmos-meas-tech.net/3/141/2010/amt-3-141-2010.html http://www.atmos-meas-tech.net/3/141/2010/amt-3-141-2010.pdf 141 162 2010-02-05 Laboratory-generated primary marine aerosol via bubble-bursting and atomization E. Fuentes H. Coe D. Green G. de Leeuw G. McFiggans g.mcfiggans@manchester.ac.uk Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK Finnish Meteorological Institute, Climate Change Unit, Helsinki, Finland University of Helsinki, Department of Physics, Helsinki, Finland TNO, Environment, Health and Safety, Utrecht, The Netherlands A range of bubble and sea spray aerosol generators has been tested in the laboratory and compared with oceanic measurements from the literature. We have shown that the method of generation has a significant influence on the properties of the aerosol particles produced. Hence, the validity of a generation system to mimic atmospheric aerosol is dependent on its capacity for generating bubbles and particles in a realistic manner. A bubble-bursting aerosol generator which produces bubbles by water impingement was shown to best reproduce the oceanic bubble spectral shapes, which confirms previous findings.<br> <br> Two porous bubblers and a plunging-water jet system were tested as bubble-bursting aerosol generators for comparison with a standard nebulizer. The methods for aerosol production were evaluated by analysing the bubble spectrum generated by the bubble-bursting systems and the submicron size distribution, hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nucleus activity of the aerosols generated by the different techniques. Significant differences in the bubble spectrum and aerosol properties were observed when using different aerosol generators.<br> <br> The aerosols generated by the different methods exhibited similar hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nucleus activity behaviour when a sample of purely inorganic salts was used as a parent seawater solution; however, significant differences in the aerosol properties were found when using samples of filtered natural seawater enriched with biogenic organics. The presence of organics in the aerosol caused suppression of the growth factor at humidities above 75% RH and an increase in the critical supersaturation with respect to the generation from artificial seawater devoid of organics. The extent of the effect of organics on the aerosol properties varied depending on the method of particle production. The results of this work indicate that the aerosol generation mechanism affects the particles organic enrichment, thus the behaviour of the produced aerosols strongly depends on the laboratory aerosol generator employed.<br> <br> Comparison between bubble lifetimes in several laboratory simulations and the oceanic conditions indicated that it would require a considerable extension of the dimensions of the currently used bubble-bursting laboratory systems in order to replicate the characteristic oceanic bubble lifetimes. We analyzed the implications derived from the reduced bubble residence times in scaled systems, regarding marine surfactants adsorption on rising bubbles, and found that adsorption equilibrium is reached on a timescale much shorter than the bubble lifetime in small-scale laboratory generators. This implies that adsorption of marine surface-active material is not limited by surfactant transport to the bubble surface. Aluwihare, L. I. and Repeta, D. J.: A comparison of the chemical characteristics of oceanic DOM and extracellular DOM produced by marine algae, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 186, 105–117, 1999. Baldy, S.: Bubbles in the close vicinity of breaking waves: Statistical characteristics of the generation and dispersion mechanism, J. Geophys. Res., 93(C7), 8239–8248, 1988. Batchelor, G. K.: An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1967. Blanchard, D. C.: Sea-to-air transport of surface active material, Science, 146, 396–397, 1964. Boehme, J., Frisches, M. E., Jiang, S. C., Kellog, C. A., Pichard, S., Rose, J. B., Steinway, C., and Paul, J. H.: Viruses, bacterioplankton, and phytoplankton in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico: distribution and contribution to oceanic DNA pools, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 97, 1–10, 1993. Bowyer, P. A.: Video measurements of near-surface bubble spectra, J. Geophys. Res., 106(C7), 14179–14190, 2001. Braban, C. F, Adams, J. W., Rodriguez, D., Cox, R. E., Crowley, J. N., and Schuster, G.: Heterogeneous reactions of HOI, ICl and IBr on sea salt and sea salt proxies, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 9, 3136–3148, 2007. Cavalli, F., Facchini, M. C., Decesari, S., Mircea, M., Emblico, L., Fuzzi, S., Ceburnis, D., Yoon, Y. J., O’Dowd, C. D., Putaud, J. P., and Dell’Acqua, A. L.: Advances in characterization of size-resolved organic matter in marine aerosol over the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D24215, doi:10.1029/2004JD005137, 2004. Chanson, H., Aoki, D., and Maruyama, M.: Unsteady air bubble entrainment and detrainment at a plunging breaker: dominant time scales and similarity of water level variations, Coastal Eng., 46(2), 139–157, 2002. Chanson, H., Aoki, D., and Maruyama, M.: Physical modelling and similitude of air bubble entrainment at vertical circular plunging jets, Chem. Eng. Sci., 59(4), 747–758, 2004. Cipriano, R. J. and Blanchard, D.: Bubble and Aerosol Spectra Produced by a Laboratory "Breaking Wave", J. Geophys. Res., 86(C9), 8085–8092, 1981. Cloke, J., McKay, W. A., and Liss, P. S.: Laboratory investigations into the effect of marine organic material on the sea-salt aerosol generated by bubble bursting, Mar. Chem., 34, 77–95, 1991. Cziczo, D. J., Nowak, J. B.,. Hu, J. H., and Abbatt, J. P. D.: Infrared spectroscopy of model tropospheric aerosols as a function of relative humidity: Observation of deliquescence and crystallization, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 18843–18850, 1997. Cubison, M. J., Coe, H., and Gysel, M.: A modified hygroscopic tandem DMA and a data retrieval method based on optimal estimation, J. Aerosol. Sci., 36, 846–865, 2005. de Leeuw, G. and Cohen, L. H.: Bubble size distributions on the North atlantic and North Sea. Geophysical monograph, Am. Geo. Union, 127 , 271–277, 2002. de Leeuw, G. and Leifer, I.: "Bubbles outside the bubble plume during the LUMINY wind-wave experiment", in: Gas Transfer and Water Surfaces, edited by: Donelan, M. A., Drennan, W. M., Salzman, E. S., and Wanninkhof, R., Geophysical Monograph 127, American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 295–301, 2002. Deane, G. B. and Stokes, M. D.: Scale dependence of bubble creation mechanisms in breaking waves, Nature, 418, 839–844, 2002. Dinar, E., Mentel, T. F., and Rudich, Y.: The density of humic acids and humic like substances (HULIS) from fresh and aged wood burning and pollution aerosol particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5213–5224, 2006. Duce, R. A. and Hoffman, E. J.: Chemical fractionation at the air/sea interface, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 4, 187–228 , 1976. Dukhin, S. S., Kretschmar, G., and Miller, R.: Dynamics of adsorption at liquid interfaces, Elsevier Verlag, Amsterdam, 1995. Facchini, M.C., Rinaldi, M., Decesari, S., Carbone, C., Finessi, E., Mircea, M., Fuzzi, S., Ceburnis, D., Flanagan, R., Nilsson, E.D, de Leeuw, G., Martino, M.,Woeltjen, J., and O'Dowd, C. D.: Primary submicron marine aerosol dominated by insoluble organic colloids and aggregates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L17814, doi:10.1029/2008GL034210, 2008. Fitzgerald, J. W.: Marine aerosols: a review, Atmos. Environ., 25A, 533–546, 1991. Fraga, F.: Phytoplanktonic biomass synthesis: application to deviations from Redfield stoichiometry, Sci. Mar., 65, supplement 2, 153–169, 2001. Fuentes, E., Coe, H., Green, D., and McFiggans, G.: On the impacts of phytoplankton-derived organic matter on the properties of primary marine aerosol, in preparation, 2010. Gibbs, J. W.: Collected Works Longmans, Green and Co., New York, 1928. Graham, A., Woolf, D. K., and Hall, A. J.: Aeration due to breaking waves. Part I: Bubble populations, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 34, 989–1007, 2004. Guillard, R. R. L.: Culture of phytoplankton for feeding marine invertebrates, in: Culture of Marine Invertebrate Animals, edited by: Smith, W. L. and Chanley, M. H., Plenum Press, New York, 26–60, 1975. Gysel, M., McFiggans, G. B., and Coe, H.: Inversion of tandem differential mobility analyser (TDMA) measurements, J. Aerosol Sci., 40, 134–151, 2009. Hoffman, E. J. and Duce, R. A.: Organic carbon in marine atmospheric particulate matter: concentration and particle size distribution, Geophys. Res. Lett., 4, 449–452, 1977. Hultin, K. A. H., Nilsson, E. D., Krejci, R., M\aa rtensson, E. M., Hagstrom, A., and de Leeuw, G.: In situ laboratory sea spray production during the MAP 2006 cruise on the North East Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., doi:10.1029/2009JD012522, in press, 2010. Hwang, P. A., Hsu, Y.-H. L., and Wu, J.: Air Bubbles Produced by Breaking Wind Waves: A Laboratory Study, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20(1), 19–28, 1990. Hwang, P. A. and Teague, W. J.: Low-Frequecy Resonant Scattering of Bubble Clouds, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 17(6), 847–853, 2000. Iskandar, F., Gradon, L., and Okuyama, K.: Control of the morphology of nanostructured particles prepared by the spray drying of a nonparticle sol, J. Col. Interf. Sci., 265, 396–303, 2003. Ittekot, V.: Variations of dissolved organic matter during a plankton bloom: qualitative aspects, based on sugar and amino acid analyses., Mar. Chem., 11, 143–158, 1982. Johnson, B. D.: Bubble populations: background and breaking waves, in: A Parameter Describing Overall Conditions of Wave Breaking, Whitecapping, Sea-spray Production and Wind Stress, Oceanic Whitecaps and Their Role in Air-Sea Exchange Processes, edited by: Monahan, E. C., McGrawHill Editors, Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 69–75, 1986. Keene, W. C., Maring, H. , Maben, J. R., Kieber, D. J., Pszenny, A. A. P., Dahl, E. E., Izaguirre, M. A., Davis, A. J., Long, M. S., Zhou, X., Smoydzin, L., and Sander, R.: Chemical and physical characteristics of nascent aerosols produced by bursting bubbles at a model air-sea interface, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D21202, doi:10.1029/2007JD008464, 2007. Kester, D. R., Duedall, I. W., Conners, D. N., and Pytkowicz, R. M.: Preparation of artificial seawater, Limnol. Oceanogr., 12, 176–179, 1967. Krzan, M. and Malysa, K.: Influence of solution pH and electrolyte presence on bubble velocity in anionic surfactant solutions, Physicochem. Probl. Mi., 43, 43–58, 2009. Lamarre, E. and Melville, W. K.: Air entrainment and dissipation in breaking waves, Nature, 351, 469–472, 1991. Lamarre, E. and Melville, W. K.: Sound-speed measurements near the ocean surface, J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 96, 3605–3616, 1994. Langmann, B., Scannel, C., and O'Dowd, C.: New Directions: Organic matter contribution to marine aerosols and cloud condensation nuclei, Atmos. Environ., 42(33), 7821–7822, 2008. Langmuir, I.: The constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids. II. Liquids, Am. Chem. Soc., 39, 1848–1906, 1917. Leifer, I., de Leeuw, G., and Cohen, L. H.: Secondary bubble production from breaking waves: The bubble burst mechanism, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 4077–4080, 2000. Leifer, I., de Leeuw, G., and Cohen, L. H.: Optical Measurement of Bubbles: System Design and Application, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 20, 1317–1332, 2003. Leifer, I. and de Leeuw, G.:, Bubbles generated from wind-steepened breaking waves: 1. Bubble plume bubbles, J. Geophys. Res., 111, C06020, doi:10.1029/2004JC002673, 2006. Leifer, I., Caulliez, G., and De Leew, G.: Characteristics of bubble plumes, bubble-plume bubbles, and waves from wind-steepened wave-breaking, J. Mar. Syst., 66, 61–70, 2007. Levich, V. G.: Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, 2nd ed.; Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Chapter 8, Section 72, 1962. Lewis, E. R. and Schwartz, S. E.: Sea Salt Aerosol Production: Mechanisms, Methods, Measurements and Models, Geophysical Monograph Series, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 152, 252~pp., 2004. Li, Z., Williams, A. L., and Rood, M. J.: Influence of soluble surfactant properties on the activation of aerosol particles containing inorganic solute, J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 1859–1866, 1998. Lomas, M. W., Glibert, P. M., Clougherty, D. A., Huber, D., R., Jones, J., Alexander, J., and Haramoto, E. Elevated organic nutrient ratios associated with brown tide algal blooms of Aureococcus anophagefferens (Pelagophyceae), J. Plankton Res., 23(12), 1339–1344, 2001. MÃ¥rtensson, E. M. , Nilsson, E. D., Cohen, L. H., and de Leeuw, G.: Laboratory simulations and parameterization of the primary marine aerosol production, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 4297, doi:10.1029/2002JD002263, 2003. McFiggans, G., Artaxo, P., Baltensperger, U., Coe, H., Facchini, M. C., Feingold, G., Fuzzi, S., Gysel, M., Laaksonen, A., Lohmann, U., Mentel, T. F., Murphy, D. M., O'Dowd, C. D., Snider, J. R., and Weingartner, E.: The effect of physical and chemical aerosol properties on warm cloud droplet activation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2593–2649, 2006. McNeill, V. F., Patterson, J., Wolfe, G. M., and Thornton, J. A.: The effect of varying levels of surfactant on the reactive uptake of N₂O$_5$ to aqueous aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1635–1644, 2006. Medwin, H. and Breitz, N. D: Ambient and Transient Bubble Spectral Densities in Quiescent Seas and Under Spilling Breakers, J. Geophys. Res., 94(C9), 12751–12759, 1989. Meskhidze, N. and Nenes, A.: Phytoplankton and cloudiness in the Southern Ocean, Science, 314(5804), 1419–1423, 2006. Middlebrook, A. M., Murphy, D. M., and Thomson, D. S.: Observation of organic material in individual particles at Cape Grim during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1), J. Geophys. Res., 103(D13), 16475–16483, 1998. Moore, R. H., Ingall, E. D., Sorooshian, A., and Nenes, A.: Molar mass, surface tension, and droplet growth kinetics of marine organics from measurements of CCN activity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L07801, doi:10.1029/2008GL033350, 2008. Morgan, J. D., Napper, D. H., Warr, G. G., and Nicol, S. K.: Kinetics of recovery of hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide by flotation, Langmuir, 8, 2124–2129, 1992. Niedermeier, D., Wex, H., Voigtländer, J., Stratmann, F., Brüggemann, E., Kiselev, A., Henk, H., and Heintzenberg, J.: LACIS-measurements and parameterization of sea-salt particle hygroscopic growth and activation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 579–590, 2008. Novakov, T., Corrigan,C. E., Penner, J. E., Chuang, C. C., Rosario, O., and Bracero, O. L.: Organic aerosols in the Caribbean trade winds: A natural source?, J. Geophys. Res., 102(D17), 21307–21313, doi:10.1029/97JD01487, 1997. O'Dowd, C. D., Smith, M. H., Consterdine, I. E., and Lowe, J. A.: Marine aerosol, sea-salt, and the marine sulphur cycle: a short review, Atmos. Environ., 31, 73–80, 1997. O'Dowd, C. D., Facchini, M. C., Cavalli, F., Ceburnis, D., Mircea, M., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S., Yoon, Y. J., and Putaud, J.-P.: Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine aerosol, Nature, 431(7009), 676–680, 2004. O'Dowd, C. D. and de Leeuw, G.: Marine aerosol production: a review of the current knowledge, Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 365, 2007–2043, 2007. Pogorzelski, S. J. and Kogut, A. D.: Static and dynamic properties of surfactant films on natural waters, Oceanologia, 43(2), 223–224, 2001a. Pogorzelski, S. J. and Kogut, A. D.: Kinetics of marine surfactant adsorption at an air/water interface. Baltic Sea studies, Oceanologia, 43(4), 389–404, 2001b. Putaud, J. P., Van Dingenen, R., Mangoni, M., Virkkula, A., Raes, F., Maring, H., Prospero, J. M., Swietlicki, E., Berg, O. H., Hillamo, R., and Makela, T.: Chemical mass closure and assessment of the origin of the submicron aerosol in the marine boundary layer and the free troposphere at Tenerife during ACE-2, Tellus B, 52, 141–168, 2000. Ramaswamy, V., Boucher, O., Haigh, J., Hauglustaine, D., Haywood, J., Myhre, G., Nakajima, T., Shi, G. Y., and Solomon, S.: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of working group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001. Rapp, R. J. and Melville, W. K.: Laboratory measurements of deep-water breaking waves, Philos. T. R. Soc. Lond., 331, 735–800, 1990. Ribeiro C. P. and Mewes, D.: The influence of electrolytes on gas hold-up and regime transition in bubble columns, Chem. Eng. Sci., 62(17), 4501–4509, 2007. Richardson, J. F. and Zaki, W. N.: Sedimentation and fluidization-part I, T. I. Chem. Eng.-Lond., 32, 35–53, 1954. Rissman, T. A., Varutbangkul, V., Surratt, J. D., Topping, D. O., McFiggans, G., Flagan, R. C., and Seinfeld, J. H.: Cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) behavior of organic aerosol particles generated by atomization of water and methanol solutions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2949–2971, 2007. Abo Riziq, A., Erlick, C., Dinar, E., and Rudich, Y.: Optical properties of absorbing and non-absorbing aerosols retrieved by cavity ring down (CRD) spectroscopy, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1523–1536, 2007. Roberts, G. C. and Nenes, A.: A continuous-flow streamwise thermal-gradient CCN chamber for atmospheric measurements, Aerosol Sci. Tech. 39, 206–221, 2005. Ruzicka, M. C., Draho J., Menab, P. C., and Teixeirac, J. A., Chem. Eng. J., 96(1–3), 15–22, 2003. Sankaranarayanan, K., Shan, X. , Kevrekidis, I. G., and Sundaresan, S.: Analysis of drag and virtual mass forces in bubbly suspensions using an implicit formulation of the lattice Boltzmann method, J. Fluid Mech., 452, 61–96, 2002. Saul, T. D., Tolocka, M. P., and Johnston, M. V.: Reactive uptake of nitric acid onto sodium chloride aerosols across a wide range of relative humidities, J. Phys. Chem. A, 110, 7614–7620, 2006. Savoie, D. L., Arimoto, R., Keene, W. C., Prospero, J. M., Duce, R. A., and Galloway, J. N.: Marine biogenic and anthropogenic contributions to non-sea-salt sulfate in the marine boundary layer over the North Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D18), 4356, doi:10.1029/2001JD000970, 2002. Sellegri, K, O'Dowd, C. D., Yoon, Y. J, Jennings, S. G., and de Leeuw, G.: Surfactants and submicron sea spray generation, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D22215, doi:10.1029/2005JD006658, 2006. Simonnet, M., Gentric, C., Olmos E., and Midoux, N. Experimental determination of the drag coefficient in a swarm of bubbles, Chem. Eng. Sci., 62, 858–866, 2007. Sorjamaa, R., Svenningsson, B., Raatikainen, T., Henning, S., Bilde, M., and Laaksonen, A.: The role of surfactants in Köhler theory reconsidered, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2107–2117, 2004. Spiel, D. E.: A hypothesis concerning the peak in film drop formation as a function of bubble size, J. Geophys. Res., 102(C1), 1153–1161, doi:10.1029/96JC03069, 1997. Stefan, R. L. and Szeri, A. J.: Surfactant scavenging and surface deposition by rising bubbles, J. Coll. Int. Sci., 212, 1–13, 1999. Stephanou, E. G.: Analysis of anthropogenic and biogenic lipids in the aerosol of a coastal area in East Mediterranean Sea, Fresen. J. Anal. Chem., 339, 780–784, 1991. Stewart, D. J., Griffiths, P. T., and Cox, R. A.: Reactive uptake coefficients for heterogeneous reaction of N₂O$_5$ with submicron aerosols of NaCl and natural sea salt, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 1381–1388, 2004. Svenningsson, B., Rissler, J., Swietlicki, E., Mircea, M., Bilde, M., Facchini, M. C., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S., Zhou, J., Mønster, J., and Rosenørn, T.: Hygroscopic growth and critical supersaturations for mixed aerosol particles of inorganic and organic compounds of atmospheric relevance, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1937–1952, 2006. Taketani, F., Kanaya, Y., and Akimoto, H., Heterogeneous loss of HO₂ by KCl, synthetic sea salt, and natural seawater aerosol particles, Atmos. Environ., 43(9), 1660–1665, 2009. Tang, I. N., Tridico, A. C., and Fung, K. H.: Thermodynamical and optical properties of sea salt aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 23269–23275, 1997. Terrill, E. J., Melville, W. K., and Stramski, D.: Bubble entrainment by breaking waves and their influence on optical scattering in the upper ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 106(C8), 16815–16823, 823, 2001. Tseng, R., Viechnicki, J. T., Skop, R. A., and Brown, J. W.: Sea-to Air transfer of surface active organic compounds by bubble bursting bubbles, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 5201–5206, 1992. Tyree, C. A., Hellion, V. M., Alexandrova, O. A., and Allen, J. O.: Foam droplets generated from natural and artificial seawaters, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12204, doi:10.1029/2006JD007729, 2007. Vagle, S. and Farmer, D. M.: The measurement of bubble-size distributions by acoustical backscatter, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 9, 630–644, 1992. Williams, P. I.: Construction and validation of a DMPS for aerosol characterisation, University of Manchester, PhD Thesis, 1999. Williams, P. I., McFiggans, G., and Gallagher, M. W.: Latitudinal aerosol size distribution variation in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean measured aboard the FS-Polarstern, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2563–2573, 2007. Winkler, P. and Junge, C.: The growth of atmospheric aerosol particles as a function of the relative humidity, I, Methods and measurements at different locations, J. Res. Atmos., 18, 617–638, 1972. Wise, M. E., Freney, E. J., Tyree, C. A., Allen, J. O., Martin, S. T., Russel, L. M. and Buseck, P. R.: Hygroscopic behaviour and liquid-layer composition of aerosol particles generated from natural and artificial seawater, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D03201, doi:10.1029/2008JA013848, 2009. Wu, J.: Jet Drops Produced by Bubbles Bursting at the Surface of Seawater, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32, 3286–3290, 2002. Young, M. E., Carroad, P. A., and Bell, R. L.: Estimation of diffusion coefficients of proteins, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 22(5), 947–955, 2004. Zhang, J. and Fan, L.-S.: On the rise velocity of an interactive bubble in liquids, Chem. Eng. J., 92, 169–176, 2003.